20th CENTURY APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE LEARNING
((Be a hero, Be a learner
Touch the future, Be a teacher))
There are four other approaches to
language teaching that have been widely used in 20th century. (Cognitive
approach, Affective Humanistic approach, Comprehension Based approach,
Communicativa approach)
Anthony:
Approach to
language teaching is something that reflects a certain model or research
paradigm a theory. The broadest term of the three.
Method is a
set of procedures, i.e. a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach
a language. Methods are more specific than approaches.
Technique is
a classroom device or activity and thus represents the narrowest term of the
three concepts.
A) Grammar Translation Approach (extension)
1.
Instruction is given in native language
2.
Little use of target language
3.
Focus on grammar (the form and inflection of
words)
4.
Early reading of difficult texts
5.
Translation from target language into mother
tongue
6.
There may be inability to use language for
communication
7.
Teacher doesn’t have to be able to speak the
target language
B) Direct Approach : a reaction to GMT. and its failure of communication
1.
No use of mother tongue
2.
Lesson begins with dialogs and anecdotes in
modern conversational style
3.
Literary works are read for pleasure and
there is no grammatical analyse
4.
The target culture is also read inductively
5.
Actions and pictures are used for meaning
6.
Grammar is learned inductively (tümevarımsal)
7.
Teacher must be native speaker or have native
like proficiency
C) Reading Approach : a reaction to impracticality of direct approach
1.
Grammar useful for reading comprehension is
taught
2.
Vocabulary is controlled first, then expanded
3.
Translation is intensive
4.
Reading
5.
Teacher doesn’t need to have oral profciency
D) Audiolingualism (a reaction to the lack of oral aural (sözel işitsel)
skills in reading approach. It is like Direct Approach but adds from structural
linguistics and behavioral psychology)
1.
Lessons begin with dialogs
2.
Mimicry and memorization for habit formation
3.
Grammatiacal structures are sequenced and
rule are taught inductively
4.
Skills are sequenced (listen, speak, read,
writing postponed)
5.
Pronunciation (telaffuz) at the beginning
6.
Vocabulary is limited at the beginning
7.
Preventing from learner errors
8.
Language use without regard tocontext meaning
9.
Teacher must be proficient in thr structures,
vocabulary
E) Situational Approach (a reaction to the lack of oral aural skills in
Reading Approach. It draws much from direct Approach but adds from Firthian
(İskoç) Linguistics and language pedagogy))
1.
Spoken language is primary
2.
Language is practiced orally. After an oral
base in lexical and grammatical forms reading and writing comes.
3.
Target language should be used
4.
Most general and useful lexical items are to
be ensured.
5.
Grammatical structures are graded from simple
to difficult
6.
Lexical and grammatical items should be given
in situations (i.e. at the bank, etc.)
F) Cognitive Approach (a reaction to behaviorist features of Audiolingual
Approach)
1.
Rule acquisition not habit formation
2.
Individualized instruction
3.
Grammar must be taught but it can be both
deductively (rules first practice later) and inductively (rules after practice)
4.
Pronunciation isn emphasized a little
5.
Read and write as well as listen and speak
6.
Vocabulary instruction is important
especially in intermadiate and advanced levels
7.
Errors are inevitable and useful for learning
8.
Teacher must have general proficiency and
analyzing ability of target language
G) Affective Humanistic Approach (a reaction to the lack of affective
considerations of Audiolingua-lism and Cognitive code)
1.
Individual feelings of each student and
teacher
2.
Meaningful communication
3.
Instruction in pairs and small groups
4.
Class atmosphere is more important than
materials or methods
5.
Peer support and interaction
6.
Learning a foreign language is a self
realization
7.
Teacher is counsellor or facilitator
8.
Teacher must be proficient both in target and
student’s native language since translation may be used for student’s good
feeling
H) Comprehension Based Approach (a researh of foreign language learning is
like first language acquisition)
1.
Listening comprehension is very important. It
develops speaking, reading and writing.
2.
Listening meaninful speech and respond
nonverbally
3.
Not speaking until being ready
4.
Meaningful input
5.
Error correction is unnecessary,
understanding is most important
6.
Teacher must be native (or near native)
sapeker. If not audiotapes or videotapes.
I) Communicative (konuşkan) Approach (Anthropologic and Firthian
linguistics )
1.
The goal is learner ability to communicate
2.
Content of language not just linguistic
structures but semantic nations and social functions
3.
To transfer meaning work in pairs and groups
4.
Adjusting the use of target language in
different social contexts by role plays and dramatizations
5.
Authentic materials
6.
All skills from the beginning for learners
are edicated and literate
7.
Teacher primarily faciliate the communication
secondarily correct errors
8.
Teacher uses the target language fluently and
appropriately
Cognitive
Approach: language is rule governed cognitive behaviour (not habit formation)
Affective
Humanistic Approach: language learning is a process of self realization and
relating to other people
Comprehension
Approah: language acquisition appears when learner comprehends meaninful input
Communicative
Approach: purpose of language is communication
Understanding
the concepts of APPROACH, METHOD and TECHNIQUE
Approach is
general (e.g. Cognitive), Method is a specific set of procedures more or less
compatible with an approach (e.g. Silant Way), Technique is a very specific
type of learning activity used in one or more methods (e.g. using
rods).
Grammar Translation Approach,
Direct
Approach
Audiolingual
Approach Structual syllabus
(organized courses, teaching
Cognitive
Approach
materials around grammar)
Some methods
following Comprehension Approach
Reading
Approach
→ Text based syllabus (around texts and
vocabulary items minor grammar)
Situational
Approach → Dual objective
syllabus (around various
situation with structure and vocabulary)
Communicative
Approach → communicative syllabus (around notions like
location, agei degree and functions like asking
for information)
Affective
Hum. Approach → Learner Generated syllabus (learner decide
what to learn, what to do)
Behaviorism
What is
Behaviorism?
·
School of thought popular in psychology and
related fields in the 1930’s-1950’s
·
Holds that objectively observable
behavior is the only acceptable means of data analysis
·
Emphasizes the role of environment in learning
and development (nurture)
·
Learning consists of habits constructed
through stimulus-response associations
Who is Bloomfield
·
1887-1949
·
“Father of American
Linguistics”—descriptive tradition, structuralist, behaviorist
·
Trained as
IEist, but went on to Tagalog and Algonquian languages
Passage from
Language (1933), 22-26
A.
A. Practical events
preceding the act of speech
B.
B. Speech
C.
C. Practical events
following the act of speech
S R (speechless reaction)
S r . . . . . .
s R (reaction mediated by speech)
What
elements of Behaviorism did you find in the Bloomfield
·
Speech is the
practical reaction (response) to some stimulus
·
Object of study:
observable events (behavior)
Language
learning seen setting up stimulusàresponse pairs, a.k.a. habits
·
Babbling sets up
stimulusàresponse pairs: you make certain movements with your mouth and hear certain
sounds
·
“Imitation” is just a response to the aural
stimulus
Association of vocal patterns and objects also
stimulusàresponse pairs
·
Adult emotion of
“asking or wanting” a more advanced stimulusàresponse pairs
·
In addition, Bloomfield
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
Based in
behaviorist thinking:
·
SLA
seen as the development of a new set of habits
·
Positive vs. Negative transfer
(of habits)
Main tenants
of CAH (strong version):
·
Main source of errors in L2 due
to transfer of L1 habits
·
Errors can be predicted by
a contrastive analysis of the L1 and L2
·
The greater the difference
between L1 and L2, the more errors that will occur
Problems
with CAH:
·
Errors occur that are not
due to L1 (
·
Errors don’t occur when they are
predicted (see exs (3-10)-(3-12))
·
Problems operationalizing
the contrastive analysis—how do you measure “difference” and “distance”
·
Paradigm shift from
behaviorist to mentalist views in psychology and linguistics
o
Errors in child language
part of rule formation and not part of child’s linguistic environment
o
Imitation and
reinforcement/correction don’t seem to be important to language acquisition
ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ
English phonology is the study of the phonology
(i.e. the sound system) of the English language.
Like all languages, spoken English has wide variation in its pronunciation both diachronically and synchronically from dialect to dialect. This variation is especially salient in
English, because the language is spoken over such a wide territory, being the
predominant language in Australia, Canada, the Commonwealth Caribbean,
Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States in addition to being spoken as a
first or second language by people in countries on every continent, and notably
in South Africa and India. In general the regional dialects of English are
mutually intelligible.Although there are many dialects of English, the following are usually used as prestige or standard accents: Received Pronunciation for the
Contents
- 1 Phonemes
- 2
Distribution of allophones
- 3
Phonotactics
- 4 Stress
- 5 Intonation
- 6 History of
English pronunciation
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9
Bibliography
- 10 External
links
Phonemes
See IPA chart for English for concise charts of the
English phonemes.The number of speech sounds in English varies from dialect to dialect, and any actual tally depends greatly on the interpretation of the researcher doing the counting. The Longman Pronunciation Dictionary by John C. Wells, for example, using symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet, denotes 24 consonants and 23 vowels used in Received Pronunciation, plus two additional consonants and four additional vowels used in foreign words only. For General American it provides for 25 consonants and 19 vowels, with one additional consonant and three additional vowels for foreign words. The American Heritage Dictionary, on the other hand, suggests 25 consonants and 18 vowels (including r-colored vowels) for American English, plus one consonant and five vowels for non-English terms [1].
No comments:
Post a Comment