Vowels
The vowels of English differ considerably between dialects.
Because of this, corresponding vowels may be transcribed with various symbols
depending on the dialect under consideration. When considering English as a
whole, no specific phoneme symbols are picked over others; instead lexical sets are used, each named by a word
containing the vowel in question. For example, the vowel of the
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1. Vowels are more equal in length, differing
mainly in quality.
2. The central vowel of nurse is rhotic /ɝ/ or a syllabic /ɹ̩/.
3. Speakers make a phonemic distinction between
rhotic /ɚ/ and non-rhotic /ə/
4. No distinction is made between /ɒ/ and /ɑ/, nor for many people with /ɔ/.
Reduced vowels occur in unstressed syllables.- [ɨ]: roses (merged with [ə] in Australian English)
- [ə]:
- [l̩]: bottle
- [n̩]: button
- [m̩]: rhythm
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English diphthongs
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low
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/əʊ/
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/əʉ/
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/oʊ/
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loud
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/aʊ/
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/æɔ/
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/aʊ/
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/aʊ/
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lout
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[əʊ]1
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lied
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/aɪ/
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/ɑe/
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/aɪ/
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/aɪ/
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light
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[əɪ]1
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lane
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/eɪ/
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/æɪ/
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/eɪ/
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loin
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/ɔɪ/
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/oɪ/
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/ɔɪ/
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leer
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/ɪə/
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/ɪə/
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/ɪɚ/³
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lair
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/ɛə/²
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/eː/ ²
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/ɛɚ/³
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lure
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/ʊə/²
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/ʊə/
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/ʊɚ/³
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1. Canadian English, exhibits allophony of /aʊ/ and /aɪ/ called Canadian raising. The phenomenon also occurs
(especially for /aɪ/) in many US speakers, in South Atlantic English,
and in the Fens.
2. In Received Pronunciation, the vowels in lair
and lure may be monophthongized to [ɛː] and [oː] respectively.[2] Australian English
speakers more readily monophthongize the former but it is listed here anyway.
3. In Rhotic dialects,
words like pair, poor, and peer can be analyzed as diphthongs, although other
descriptions analyze them as vowels with /ɹ/ in the coda.[citation
needed]
Transcription
variants
The choice of which symbols to use for
phonemic transcriptions may reveal theoretical assumptions or claims on the
part of the transcriber. English 'lax' and 'tense' vowels are distinguished by
a synergy of features, such as height, length, and transition (monophthong vs.
diphthong); different traditions in the linguistic literature emphasize
different ones. For example, if the primary feature is thought to be vowel
height, then the non-reduced vowels of General American English may be
represented as follows:|
General American full vowels,
vowel height distinctive |
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i
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u
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ɪ
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ʊ
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e
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ɚ, ə
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o
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ɛ
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ɔ
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æ
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ɑ
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General American full vowels,
vowel length distinctive |
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iː
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uː
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i
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u
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eː
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ɹ̩ː
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oː
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e
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ə
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o
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a
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aː
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If vowel transition is taken to be paramount, then the chart may look like one of these:
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or
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Many linguists combine more than one of these features in their transcriptions, suggesting they consider the phonemic differences to be more complex than a single feature.
Distribution
of allophones
Although regional
variation is very great across English dialects, some
generalizations can be made about pronunciation in all (or at least the vast
majority) of English accents:Initial-stress-derived nouns mean that stress changes in many English words came about between noun and verb senses of a word. For example, a rebel [ˈɹɛ.bɫ̩] (stress on the first syllable) is inclined to rebel [ɹɪ.ˈbɛɫ] (stress on the second syllable) against the powers that be. The number of words using this pattern as opposed to only stressing the second syllable in all circumstances doubled every century or so, now including the English words object, convict, and addict.
- The voiceless stops /p t k/ are aspirated
at the beginnings of words (for example tomato) and at the beginnings of
word-internal stressed syllables (for example potato).
- A distinction is made between tense and lax vowels in pairs like
beet/bit and bait/bet, although the exact phonetic implementation of the
distinction varies from accent to accent. However, this distinction
collapses before [ŋ].
- For many people, /r/ is somewhat labialized in some environments, as in
reed [ɹʷiːd] and tree [tɹʷiː]. In the latter case, the [t] may be slightly labialized as well.[3]
- Wherever /r/ originally followed a tense vowel or diphthong (in Early
Modern English) a schwa offglide
was inserted, resulting in centering diphthongs like [iə] in beer [biəɹ], [uə] in poor [puəɹ], [aɪə] in fire [faɪəɹ], [aʊə] in sour [saʊəɹ], and so forth. This phenomenon is known as breaking. The subsequent
history depends on whether the accent in question is rhotic
or not: In non-rhotic accents like RP
the postvocalic [ɹ] was
dropped, leaving [biə, puə, faɪə, saʊə] and the like (now usually transcribed [bɪə, pʊə] and so forth). In rhotic accents like General American,
on the other hand, the [əɹ] sequence was coalesced into a single sound, a non-syllabic [ɚ], giving [biɚ, puɚ, faɪɚ, saʊɚ] and the like (now usually transcribed [bɪɹ, pʊɹ, faɪɹ,
saʊɹ] and so forth). As a result, originally monosyllabic
words like those just mentioned came to rhyme with originally disyllabic
words like seer, doer, higher, power.
- In many (but not all) accents of English, a similar
breaking happens to tense vowels before /l/, resulting in pronunciations like [piəɫ] for peel, [puəɫ] for pool, [peəɫ] for pail, and [poəɫ] for pole.
- In many dialects, /h/ becomes [ç] before [j], as in human [ˈçjuːmən].
Phonotactics
Note: This information applies to RP. Other than
variations in the possible onsets with or without final /j/, and the presence or absence of the phoneme /ʍ/, it also applies to the other main varieties of English.
/ʍ/ only occurs
syllable-initial and does not occur in clusters.
[edit] Syllable
structure
The syllable structure in English is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C), with
a maximal example being strengths (/strɛŋkθs/, although it can be pronounced /strɛŋθs/).
Onset
There is an on-going sound change (yod-dropping)
by which /j/ as the final consonant
in a cluster is being
lost. In RP, words with /sj/ and /lj/ can usually be pronounced with or without this sound,
e.g., [suːt] or [sjuːt]. For some speakers of English, including some British
speakers, the sound change is more advanced and so, for example, in General American /j/ is also not present after /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /t/ and /d/. In Welsh English it can
occur in more combinations, for example in /tʃj/.The following can occur as the onset:
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All single consonant phonemes except /ŋ/
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Plosive plus approximant other than /j/:
/pl/, /bl/, /kl/, /ɡl/, /pr/, /br/, /tr/*, /dr/*, /kr/, /ɡr/, /tw/, /dw/, /ɡw/, /kw/ |
play, blood, clean, glove, prize, bring, tree*, dream*,
crowd, green, twin, dwarf, language, quick
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Voiceless fricative plus approximant other than /j/:
/fl/, /sl/, /fr/, /θr/, /ʃr/, /sw/, /θw/ |
floor, sleep, friend, three, shrimp, swing, thwart
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Consonant plus /j/:
/pj/, /bj/, /tj/, /dj/, /kj/, /ɡj/, /mj/, /nj/, /fj/, /vj/, /θj/, /sj/, /zj/, /hj/, /lj/ |
pure, beautiful, tube, during, cute, argue, music, new,
few, view, thurifer, suit, Zeus, huge, lurid
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/s/ plus voiceless plosive:
/sp/, /st/, /sk/ |
speak, stop, skill
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/s/ plus nasal:
/sm/, /sn/ |
smile, snow
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/s/ plus voiceless fricative:
/sf/ |
sphere
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/s/ plus voiceless plosive plus approximant:
/spl/, /spr/, /spj/, /smj/, /str/, /stj/, /skl/, /skr/, /skw/, /skj/ |
split, spring, spew, smew, street, student, sclerosis,
scream, square, skewer
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Note: A few onsets occur infrequently making it uncertain whether they are native pronunciations or merely non-assimilated borrowings, e.g. /pw/ (pueblo), /bw/ (bwana), /sv/ (svelt), /sr/ (Sri Lanka), /ʃw/ (schwa), /ʃm/ (schmuck), and /sfr/ (sphragistics).
Nucleus
The following can occur as the nucleus:- All vowel sounds
- /m/, /n/ and /l/ in certain situations (see below under word-level rules)
- /r/ in rhotic
varieties of English (eg General American)
in certain situations (see below under word-level rules)
Coda
Most, and in theory all, of the following
except those which end with /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ can be extended with /s/ or /z/ representing the morpheme -s/z-. Similarly most, and in theory all, of the
following except those which end with /t/ or /d/ can be extended with /t/ or /d/ representing the morpheme -t/d-.The following can occur as the coda:
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The single consonant phonemes except /h/, /w/, /j/ and,
in non-rhotic varieties, /r/
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Lateral approximant + plosive: /lp/, /lb/, /lt/, /ld/,
/lk/
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help, bulb, belt, hold, milk
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In rhotic varieties, /r/ + plosive: /rp/, /rb/, /rt/, /rd/,
/rk/, /rɡ/
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harp, orb, fort, beard, mark, morgue
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Lateral approximant + fricative or affricate: /lf/,
/lv/, /lθ/, /ls/, /lʃ/, /ltʃ/, /ldʒ/
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golf, solve, wealth, else, Welsh, belch, indulge
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In rhotic varieties, /r/ + fricative or affricate:
/rf/, /rv/, /rθ/ /rs/, /rʃ/, /rtʃ/, /rdʒ/
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dwarf, carve, north, force, marsh, arch, large
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Lateral approximant + nasal: /lm/, /ln/
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film, kiln
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In rhotic varieties, /r/ + nasal or lateral: /rm/,
/rn/, /rl/
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arm, born, snarl
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Nasal + homorganic plosive: /mp/, /nt/, /nd/, /ŋk/
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jump, tent, end, pink
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Nasal + fricative or affricate: /mf/, /mθ/ in
non-rhotic varieties, /nθ/, /ns/, /nz/, /ntʃ/, /ndʒ/, /ŋθ/ in some varieties
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triumph, warmth, month, prince, bronze, lunch, lounge,
length
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Voiceless fricative + voiceless plosive: /ft/, /sp/,
/st/, /sk/
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left, crisp, lost, ask
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Two voiceless fricatives: /fθ/
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fifth
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Two voiceless plosives: /pt/, /kt/
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opt, act
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Plosive + voiceless fricative: /pθ/, /ps/, /tθ/, /ts/,
/dθ/, /dz/, /ks/
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depth, lapse, eighth, klutz, width, adze, box
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Lateral approximant + two consonants: /lpt/, /lfθ/,
/lts/, /lst/, /lkt/, /lks/
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sculpt, twelfth, waltz, whilst, mulct, calx
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In rhotic varieties, /r/ + two consonants: /rmθ/,
/rpt/, /rps/, /rts/, /rst/, /rkt/
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warmth, excerpt, corpse, quartz, horst, infarct
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Nasal + homorganic plosive + plosive or fricative:
/mpt/, /mps/, /ndθ/, /ŋkt/, /ŋks/, /ŋkθ/ in some varieties
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prompt, glimpse, thousandth, distinct, jinx, length
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Three obstruents: /ksθ/, /kst/
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sixth, next
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Syllable-level
rules
- Both the onset and the coda are optional
- /j/ at the end of an onset (/pj/, /bj/, /tj/, /dj/, /kj/, /fj/, /vj/, /θj/, /sj/, /zj/, /hj/, /mj/, /nj/, /lj/, /spj/, /stj/, /skj/) must be followed by /uː/ or /ʊə/
- Long vowels and diphthongs are usually not followed
by /ŋ/
- /ʊ/ is rare in syllable-initial position
- Stop + /w/ before /uː,
ʊ, ʌ, aʊ/ are excluded[8]
- Sequences of /s/ + C1 + V̆ + C1, where C1 is the same consonant in both the
onset cluster and the coda and V̆ is a short vowel, are virtually nonexistent[9]
Word-level
rules
- /ə/ does not occur in stressed syllables
- /ʒ/ does not occur in word-initial position in native
English words although it can occur syllable-initial, eg /trɛʒə(ɹ)/
- /θj/ occurs in word-initial position in a few obscure
words: thew, thurible, etc.; it is more likely to
appear syllable initial, e.g. /ɛnθjuz/
- /m/, /n/, /l/ and, in rhotic
varieties, /r/ can be the syllable nucleus (ie a syllabic consonant)
in an unstressed syllable following another consonant, especially /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/
- Certain short vowel sounds, called checked
vowels, cannot occur without a coda in a single syllable word.
In RP,
the following short vowel sounds are checked: /ɛ/, /æ/, /ɒ/ and /ʌ/.
Stress
Stress is phonemic
in English. For example, the words desert and dessert are distinguished by
stress, as are the noun a record and the verb to record. Stressed syllables in
English are louder than non-stressed syllables, as well as being longer and
having a higher pitch. They also tend to have a fuller realization than
unstressed syllables.Examples of stress in English words, using boldface to represent stressed syllables, are holiday, alone, admiration, confidential, degree, and weaker. Ordinarily, grammatical words (auxiliary verbs, prepositions, pronouns, and the like) do not receive stress, whereas lexical words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) must have at least one stressed syllable.
English is a stress-timed language. That is, stressed syllables appear at a roughly steady tempo, and non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate this.
Traditional approaches describe English as having three degrees of stress: Primary, secondary, and unstressed. However, if stress is defined as relative respiratory force (that is, it involves greater pressure from the lungs than unstressed syllables), as most phoneticians argue, and is inherent in the word rather than the sentence (that is, it is lexical rather than prosodic), then these traditional approaches conflate two distinct processes: Stress on the one hand, and vowel reduction on the other. In this case, primary stress is actually prosodic stress, whereas secondary stress is simple stress in some positions, and an unstressed but not reduced vowel in others. Either way, there is a three-way phonemic distinction: Either three degrees of stress, or else stressed, unstressed, and reduced. See secondary stress for details.
When a stressed syllable contains a pure vowel (rather than a diphthong), followed by a single consonant and then another vowel, as in holiday, many native speakers feel that the consonant belongs to the preceding stressed syllable, /ˈhɒl.ɨ.deɪ/, or assign it to both the preceding and following syllables. Such consonants are sometimes describes as ambisyllabic. However, when the stressed vowel is a diphthong, as in admiration or weaker, speakers agree that the consonant belongs to the following syllable: /ˈædmɨˈreɪʃən/. (Phonetically, the vowel in weak is also a diphthong, [ij].)
Intonation
Prosodic stress is extra stress given to
words when they appear in certain positions in an utterance, or when they
receive special emphasis. It normally appears on the final stressed syllable in
an intonation unit. So,
for example, when the word admiration is said in isolation, or at the end of a
sentence, the syllable ra is pronounced with greater force than the syllable
ad. (This is traditionally transcribed as /ˌædmɨˈreɪʃən/.) This is the origin of the primary stress-secondary
stress distinction. However, the difference disappears when the word is not
pronounced with this final intonation.Prosodic stress can shift for various pragmatic functions, such as focus or contrast. For instance, consider the dialogue
"Is it brunch tomorrow?"
"No, it's dinner tomorrow."
In this case, the extra stress shifts from
the last stressed syllable of the sentence, tomorrow, to the last stressed
syllable of the emphasized word, dinner. Compare
"I'm going tomorrow." /aɪm
ˌɡoʊɪŋ təˈmɒroʊ/
or
"I'm going tomorrow." /aɪm
ˌɡoʊɪŋ təˈˈmɒroʊ/
with
"It's dinner tomorrow." /ɪts
ˈˈdɪnɚ təˌmɒroʊ/
Although grammatical words generally do not
have lexical stress, they do acquire prosodic stress when emphasized. Compare
ordinary
"Come in"! /ˈkʌm ɪn/
with more emphatic
"Oh, do come in!" /oʊ ˈˈduː
kʌm ˌɪn
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